Culture Talk

The Magic of Jinkwansa Temple

A rock carving of Buddha near the entrance of Jinkwansa

Close to Bukhansan National Park is a temple by the name of Jinkwansa. It was established during the Goryeo Dynasty, which means it is over a thousand years old. It is one of the oldest temples in Seoul.

Jinkwansa, like many other temples in Seoul, was not open to the public at first. It finally opened its doors in 2014 so that it could introduce Buddhism to people from around the world through programs such as Templestay.

A view of Jinkwansa

Recently, I had the pleasure of doing Templestay at this magnificent temple. Forty foreign residents including myself and twenty Korean nationals got to spend the weekend at Jinkwansa as a part of a promotional event hosted by Cultureus.

A nun named Seonwoo who is the director of the Templestay program, guided us through our weekend. She told us that she was not born as a Buddhist nun but chose to become one after she became an adult. It was great having her as our guide. She taught us many things, including how to meditate and do 108 prostrations.

The bell pavilion

Even though we had to sleep on the floor and wake up at 4:30 in the morning, it was incredibly fun. One of the activities that she allowed us to do was ring the giant bell, which was inside a pavilion. To do this, we swung a log which was suspended with ropes, against the bell. It made a gentle gong sound that was soothing to hear.

I learned a lot about the other participants during the Templestay. Many of them were from Asia such as Vietnam and the Philippines. However, some of them were from Europe and South America. All in all, it was a diverse crowd, with people coming from twenty six different countries.

Tea ceremony with traditional snack on the side, courtesy of Jinseon Park

The food was simply amazing! Even though temple food is vegan, which means there is no use of animal flesh or dairy, it was nourishing and tasty. Temple food is usually laid out on a table so that you get to pick and choose what you want to eat.

Seonwoo told us that some Buddhists don’t even eat garlic or onions because they have a strong flavor that can be distracting for the mind. When you’re done eating, it is a custom to go to the sink and wash the dishes yourself. Self-efficiency is an important value in Buddhism.

Seonwoo and our group, standing in the woods

Before our Templestay ended, Seonwoo took us to a stream told us about the impermanence of life. “It’s important to let it go, as the popular hit song declared,” she said. One part which stood out for me during our stay was when took us to a building where a Taegukgi made by a Korean independence fighter was hidden.

During the early 20th century when Japan had colonized Korea, many different versions of Taegukgi were in circulation. Eight of them, including the Jinkwansa Taegukgi, was hoisted on buildings facing Gwanghwamun Square earlier this year to commemorate March First Independence Movement Day.

Templestay can be a great way to connect with the rich history of Korea. Come to Jinkwansa if you want to get a breath of fresh air without having to leave the city behind! Wether you can decide to go alone or with a group, it doesn't matter. As Seonwoo can assure you,  everyone is welcome.

 by Alice Hong

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A Journey to the Past at Namsan Hanok Village

Seoul is a city of skyscrapers. As a city that transformed itself within a span of a century, it has hardly any remainders of the past. Most of the old traditional houses were torn down to make space for new buildings. However, you can still get a rare glimpse into the past at Namsan Hanok Village, where hanoks, or traditional Korean houses, are located. 

Time Capsule at NamsanHanok Village, with N Tower in the background

Namsan Hanok Village was created by the government in an effort to preserve Korea's cultural heritage. Five hanoks were relocated from different parts of Seoul to the foot of the Namsan Mountain,where they were restored to their original state. The village was officially opened in 1998, a few years after a time capsule commemorating Seoul’s 600 Year Anniversary was buried. 

The hanok of Carpenter Yi Seong-eopfrom Samgak-dong

Hanoks were built during the Joseon Dynasty, using materials found in nature such as wood, stone and clay. What made the architecture of a hanok unique was that nails were rarely used in its construction. Various parts of the house such as the roof and the pillars were joined together by using a series of pegs and grooves. A floor heating system called ondol, in which smoke travels under the floor and escapes through a chimney, kept people warm during the winter. 

 

The Cheonugak Pavilion and Cheonghakji Pond

Each hanok at Namsan Hanok Village comes with its own characteristics that makes it worthwhile to see. Even though they’re over a hundred years old, they have retained their elegance. The Cheonugak Pavilion, which was there from the very beginning, was where the locals went to relax during the summer. Many performances and programs occur throughout the year at Namsan Hanok Village to help visitors learn more about Korean traditional culture.

To learn in detail about the meaning of Namsan Hanok Village, ask a volunteer guide from Youth Cultural Corps for a free tour. They can be found at a tent near the Main Gate every weekend, waiting for an opportunity to help a tourist. The Youth Cultural Corps is a group of Korean students who seek to promote Korean traditional culture to people around the world. 

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The Charm of Chasu

Intricate chasu of flowers and symbols on pillow ends, courtesy of Seonjam Museum

Sewing is a skill that takes patience and care. Every stitch must be placed with precision to create an item that can withstand the test of time. Needlework was one of the skills that was cultivated by women of Joseon Dynasty. It was considered a woman’s job to make clothes for her family.

Embroidery was a way in which a woman could be expressive. Due to Confucianism, women were not allowed to go out whenever they pleased. They could not engage in activities such as making art or poetry. Therefore chasu, or embroidery, came to flourish in gyubang, the women’s quarters.

Gyubang was the section of the house where women gathered to sit and sew. They made a variety of items in here such as clothes, wrapping cloths, ornaments and wedding wear. The handicrafts they made were called gyubang gongyae. These were embroidered in various patterns and colors to bring out the character of each piece.

Poaches with Chinese character embroidery from Insadong

Our ancestors drew a lot of inspiration from nature. Flowers such as the peony and lotus were a favorite among the gyubang women. Birds such as ducks, cranes and phoenixes were also quite popular. These, along with Chinese characters, were embroidered with great detail on items such as pillows, poaches and and folding screens.

Chasu was not only practiced by mothers and daughters, but also by court ladies. During the Joseon Dynasty, there was a room at the palace dedicated to embroidery called Subang. Court ladies who excelled at sewing were sent there to work. They created the chasu on clothes and accessories worn by the royal family which were called kungsu.

A sewing box containing tools, courtesy of Seonjam Museum

Chasu is rarely practiced by women now as a result of a shift away from Confucianism. In the past, women were encouraged to be mothers, wives and daughters. However, this perception of women as domestic creatures began to fall with the onset of modernization. Women started going to school and explore life outside of home.

There is still a small but dedicated community of women who continue to breathe life into the meaning of chasu. Chasu is a reminder of the simple but beautiful way in which our had ancestors lived. As Lee Oh Young, former minister of Culture & Tourism once said, “a needle looks weaker than a knife, but it is though the power and energy of the needle that [women] have cultivated a territory of life, integrating the worlds of function and adornment.”

by Alice Hong

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The origin of the Korean flag

Most foreigners like staying in Korea. Due to services provided by places such as the Seoul Global Center, it’s easy for people from other parts of the world to live here. Coffee shops are everywhere and the subway is cheap.

Bigak Pavillion near Gwanghwamun Square

However, Korea was not always so open to foreigners. During the mid 19th century, Korea was referred to as the Hermit Kingdom due to its closed doors policy towards foreigners. Back then, Korea only conducted trade with its neighbors such as China.

The situation began to change after the Ganghwa incident of 1875, in which a Japanese ship destroyed a Korean fort. Korea was forced to sign a treaty that gave way to Japan in 1876. It was during these circumstances that Koreans realized they did not have a national flag. Thus, the Taegukgi was born.

Many ancient Chinese ideas that pertain to harmony and unity were the source of inspiration for the flag. At the center of the flag is a symbol called taeguk, which is based on the Yin and Yang theory. The red and blue halves flowing within a circle represent two opposites forming a whole.

Picture of Taegukgi at Noksapyeong Stn

The four trigrams which appear on each corner of the flag are derived from Taoism. The broken and unbroken lines represent the way in which Yin and Yang goes through a pattern of change and growth. Each trigram represents one of the four universal elements: heaven, earth, fire and water.

Let’s not forget about the background. White was the color chosen because it means peace and purity. When all the parts of the flag are put together, what you get is a visual representation of the ideals that Korea was founded on. A politician called Park Yeong Hyo became the first person to start using the Taegukgi to represent Korea in 1882.

Because the Taegukgi is so simple, it’s hard to imagine that a lot of blood, sweat and tears were shed on its behalf. The use of Taegukgi was prohibited during the early 20th century when Korea was colonized by Japan. However, thanks to freedom fighters and activists who gave their lives, the ideal behind the flag persists to this day.

By Alice Hong​

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Hyungbae: the symbol of Korean monarchy

For centuries, Korea was governed by kings. The king was revered throughout the land and his work was recorded in the pages of history. The palace was where he lived and only those close to him could enter it. 

Nowadays, anyone is able to enter the palace because the monarchy no longer exists. At the National Palace Museum of Korea near Gyeongbokgung Palace, you can find relics that had once belonged to the royals of Joseon Dynasty.

 

Among the relics on display at the museum are the royal attire. Like the Chinese, the kings of Joseon Dynasty were associated with the dragon so they wore robes that were embroidered with it. The dragon was considered the symbol of supreme power. 

The gold embroidered signs on the king’s robe are called hyungbae. They were attached on the chest, shoulders and back of the robe. Hyungbae was not just a piece of decoration. It indicated the rank of those who dwelled in the palace, such as the king’s descendants and his officials. 

 

The phoenix was the representative animal for the queen or the princess, while civil and military officials wore hyungbae that featured deer, animals such as goose, pig, crane or tiger. Commoners were forbidden from wearing clothes with hyungbae unless it was their wedding day. 

Even though the era of kings and queens are bygone, the philosophy behind hyungbae can still be seen today. Take a moment to think about superheroes such as Superman, Batman and Spiderman. They all have logos on their chest that look like hyungbae! It is very likely that this historical trend will continue for years to come.

by Alice Hong

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How Do Koreans Celebrate the New Year?

The holiday Koreans look forward to the most during the winter is undoubtedly Seollal, or Lunar New Year. In the past when farming was the primary way of life, Seollal was an opportunity for people to rest and spend time with their families.

Tteokguk, or rice cake soup, is the most popular food made during this holiday. Traditionally, it was prepared for a ritual called charye as a way of honoring ancestors. It was thought that eating the ritual food with your family helped you gain good fortune in the new year.

What people also do during Seollal is greeting the elders, or saebae. To do saebae, you take a deep bow and say “Saehae-bok mani badeusaeyo,” which means “Hope you will get lots of blessing in New Year! ” It is a custom for the elder to give you saebaedon (or Seollal money), as a gift.

The date of Seollal changes every year because it is based on the lunar calendar. For 2019, Seollal is from February 3rd to 5th. 2019 is also the Year of the Golden Pig, according to the Chinese zodiac. Check out the exhibit at the National Folk Museum called “Joyous Pig” to learn more about the meaning of this animal. 

By Alice Hong​

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Amsa Prehistoric Settlement Site

I. Introduction (소개)


We can divide history into Prehistoric age and Historic age by the appearance of 'letters'.

문자의 출현에 따라 선사시대와 역사 시대로 역사를 구분한다

Prehistoric Age is divided into 3 Ages. We divide the prehistoric time periods by the material of the tools.

선사시대는 도구의 종류에 따라 그 시대를 3개로 구분한다.

The Stone Age was when people made tools form stone, which can be divided into Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age.

사람들이 돌을 도구로 사용했던 시기를 석기시대라 하고 구석기 시대와 신석기 시대로 구분한다.

Likewise, the Bronze Age was when people made tools from bronze, and the Iron Age was when people made tools from iron.

마찬가지로 사람들이 청동으로 도구를 만들었던 시기를 청동기시대라 하고 철로 도구를 만들었던 시기를 철기시대라 한다.

The history of Korea stretches from Lower Paleolithic times to the present.

한국의 역사는 구석기 후기부터 현재에 이르기까지이다.

Korea is home to one of the oldest continuous civilizations in the world.

한국은 세계에서 가장 오랫동안 지속적으로 문명을 유지한 본거지이다.

The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC.

약 BC8000년의 토기가 한국의 가장 오래된 토기로 알려진다.



II. Paleolithic Period (구석기 시대)

During Paleolithic time, humans lived in caves.

구석기 시대의 사람들은 동굴에서 살았다.

People didn't know about agriculture.

사람들은 농업에 대해 알지 못했다.

They moved to find food when there was nothing to eat.

먹을 것이 없어지면 사람들은 음식을 구하기 위해 이동했다.

Hand axes and other chipped Stone tools shows that humans existed on the Korean peninsula about 700,000 years ago.

약 700,000년 전 한반도에 살았던 인류는 손도끼와 다른 자르는 돌 기구를 사용했다.

People gathered roots and fruit, and hunted using tools made by chipping or flaking rocks and stones.

사람들은 식물의 뿌리와 과일을 채집했으며 자르거나 깬 바위나 돌로 만든 도구로 사냥을 했다.



1. Chipped Stone tools (자른 돌 도구)

The stone tools had been used during Old Stone Age.

구석기 시대 동안 돌 도구들이 사용되었다.

It has a chipped broken appearance. Hand axe and Stone Spears were commonly used for hunting.

표면을 깬 손 도끼와 돌 창이 사냥에 주로 쓰여 졌다.

The reason that a hand axe is a symbolic artifact, from which human evolution can be traced, is that it was produced by a human being who began to stand up and think.

손도끼가 직립하여 사고하기 시작한 인류에 의해 만들어진 인류의 혁명을 되 집어 볼 때 상징적 물건으로 여겨지는 이유이다.



III. Neolithic Period (신석기 시대)



1. Neolithic people's livelihood (신석기 사람들의 생계)

The Neolithic people adapted themselves to seasonal changes and prepared their food by hunting, fishing, gathering and farming by using of polished stone tools and making pottery.

신석기 시대의 사람들은 연마한 돌 기구들과 토기 제작에 의한 사냥, 어업, 채집, 농업으로 식량을 마련하고 계절의 변화에 적응했다.

They also learned how to produce crops and how to raise animals. People started farming at the end of the Neolithic Period.

그들은 어떻게 곡식을 생산하고 가축을 기르는지를 터득했다. 신석기 시대 말기의 사람들은 농사를 짓기 시작했다.

The beginning of agriculture was called the Neolithic Revolution. This allowed people to stay in one place and establish villages.

농업의 시작은 신석기 혁명으로 불린다. 이것은 사람들이 한곳에 정착하고 마을 형성을 가능하게 하였다.

The Neolithic people lived in groups along the seashore or riverbanks where they found abundant water and food.

신석기 사람들은 풍부한 물과 음식을 발견할 수 있는 해변가나 강가를 따라 모여 살았다.

When they were at home, they repaired their houses damaged by rain and wind. They often made a long trip to get some goods. They also performed various rituals and held festivals for the peace of their lives.

집에 있을 때는 비와 바람에 피해를 입은 집들을 수리했다. 좋은 물건들을 구하기 위해 종종 긴 여행을 하기도 했다. 그들 삶의 평화를 위해 다양한 제사의식과 축제를 열었다.



2. Food for the Neolithic people (신석기 사람들의 음식)

The Neolithic people gathered fruit and edible roots that they could find easily, in addition to hunting and fishing.

신석기 사람들은 쉽게 발견할 수 있는 과일과 먹을 수 있는 식물 뿌리를 채집했으며 사냥과 어업도 하였다.

Evidence for the importance of fishing in the area is provided by tools that have been discovered, including weights for fishing nets and fishing spears.

어업이 행해졌던 장소의 중요한 증거는 어망 무게 추와 물고기를 잡는 창이 도구로 발견 된 곳이다.

When grain farming was popular around 5,000 years ago, millet became an important staple food for the Neolithic people.

약 5,000년전 곡식의 농업이 성행했을 때 수수는 신석기 사람들의 중요한 주식이 되었다.

The Stone-Oven inside the house shows that the Neolithic people cooked something. Acorns found at the site with grinding boards and grinding stones suggest this was their staple food.

집안에 있는 돌 아궁이에서 신석기 사람들이 무언가를 요리했던 것이 보여진다. 옥수수가 맷돌이 있던 자리에서 발견되었고 이것이 그들의 주식이었던 것으로 연상된다.

The people living here are also believed to have engaged in dry-field farming due to agricultural tools unearthed at the site, including a plough and a stone sickle.

발굴된 쟁기와 돌낫을 포함한 농사 도구를 볼 때 여기 살았던 사람들은 마른 땅에 농사를 지었던 것으로 추정된다.



3. Comb-Pattern Pottery (빗살무늬 토기)

During the ice age, there was not enough food. Therefore, they did not need pottery to store food. However, as food became more available, people made pottery to store and cook their food.

빙하시대에는 음식이 충분하지 않았다. 그래서 음식을 저장할 그릇이 필요하지 않았다. 그러나 음식이 풍족해 지자 사람들은 음식을 요리하거나 저장할 그릇을 만들었다.

Comb-Pattern Pottery is the most famous remains of the New Stone Age.

빗살무늬 토기는 신석기시대의 가장 유명한 유적이다.

Appearance of pottery means storage of foods. It shows the lifestyle of agriculture.

토기의 등장은 음식의 저장을 의미하며 농업 생활을 보여준다.

It has the pointed bottom to be buried inside the soft sand by the river or sea. Pattern prevents cracks from baking a pottery.

강이나 바다의 부드러운 모래에 묻기 위하여 바닥을 뾰족하게 하였다. 문양은 토기를 깨지는 것을 막아준다.



4. Neolithic tools (신석기 도구)

Neolithic tools were made by grinding and polishing.

신석기 도구는 갈아서 광을 내어 만들어졌다.

They were able to make sharper daggers and spearheads to skin and cut what they hunted.

그들은 사냥한 것의 피부를 벗기거나 자르기 위한 뾰족한 단검과 창 끝을 만들 수 있었다.

They also used grinding stones and stone pestles to grind or pound acorns.

옥수수를 갈거나 찧기 위해 맷돌이나 돌 절구 역시 사용하였다.



5. Houses of the Neolithic people (신석기 사람들의 집)

The Neolithic people settled along the riverbanks or by the sea.

신석기 사람들은 강둑이나 바다 가에 정착했다.

Digging into the ground approximately 50 to 100 centimeters the pit houses were shaped in a circle or round-square.

약 50~100 cm 땅을 파서 둥글거나 둥근 사각형 모양의 집들을 세웠다.

The hollows included a cooking stove at the center and a roof above.

중앙과 지붕 위에 화덕 구멍을 내었다.

The cooking stoves were made of stones or clay and were either round, oval or rectangular.

화덕은 돌이나 진흙으로 만들어 졌고 둥글거나 타원형 또는 육각형이다.

The floors were made of clay and covered with either grass or animal skins.

바닥은 진흙으로 만들어 졌고 풀이나 짐승의 가죽으로 덮었다.

About two or three people are supposed to have lived in one of the smaller shelters, while five or six lived in a larger one.

작은 집에서는 둘 또는 세명의 사람들이 살았던 것으로 보이며 큰 집에서는 다섯 또는 여섯명이 살았다.

Typical dugout shelters consisted of floors below ground level and rafters touching together above without walls. The roof was held up by the rafters placed around the pit. Most of their houses are covered with the reeds and twigs.

전형적인 움집은 땅 밑에 바닥이 있었고 벽이 없이 서까래를 함께 맞닿게 했던 것으로 보인다.



IV. Bronze Age (청동기 시대)



1. Bronze dagger 청동기검

Mandolin-shaped Bronze dagger represents Korean Early Bronze period culture. It was mainly found in Manchuria and gradually spread to the Korean peninsula. The main characteristic of this dagger in the peninsula is that its blade bends in the shape of 'S' and its blade and its grip were made separately and then combined. These characteristics exhibit unique Korean Bronze period culture quite different from China. It was more like a symbol of dignity than the weapon itself. Sharp Korean Bronze Dagger is much sharper than Mandolin-shaped Dagger. It is called as Korean dagger because the finding range was in match for the old Korean territory.

비파형 청동검은 한국의 초기 청동기 시대 문화를 대표한다. 만주지역에서 주로 발견되었는데 점차 한반도로 펴져갔다. 한반도에서 발견된 검의 특징은 칼날이 S자 모양으로 구부렸고 칼날과 손잡이를 따로 만들었다고 합친것이다. 이것은 중국과 다른 한국형 청동기의 성격을 보여준다. 이것은 청동무기라기보다는 권위의 상징이었다. 날카로운 한국형 청동검은 비파형 청동검보다 더 날카롭다. 이것은 한국형 동검이라 불리는데 주로 옛 한국 영토에서 많이 발견되기 때문이다.



2. Tools 도구

Bronze was symbol for status and dignity. Actually pure bronze was too weak to be used for tools. Therefore, most of daily tools were still made of stone while symbolized tools such as swords, bells and mirrors were made of bronze. Half Luna stone knife was used for cutting crops and food. Although it is made of stone, it is one of most popular remains of Bronze Age.

청동기는 지위와 권위를 나타내는 상징이었다. 사실 순수한 청동은 약해서 도구로 사용하기 어려웠다. 그래서 대부분 생활에 필요한 도구는 석기로 만들어 썼고 칼, 종, 거울은 같은 도구는 청동으로 만들었는데 의식용으로 사용되었다. 반달돌칼은 농작물을 수확하는데 사용되었다. 이것은 비록 석기로 만들었지만 청동기 시대 가장 대표적인 유물 중 하나이다.



3. Dolmens

Dolmen (Goindol) is a tomb that can usually be found in the Bronze Age. Only the chiefs or leaders of a clan or tribe could use this style of tomb. It was symbol of power. The stones used for dolmen could only be moved by hundreds of people so that showed how powerful the leader was. So, bigger stones meant bigger tribes.

고인돌은 청동기시대에 발견된 무덤이다. 씨족이나 부족의 우두머리만이 이런 형태의 무덤을 사용했다. 고인돌에 사용된 돌은 수백명의 사람들이 옮겼고 우두머리의 힘을 보여주는 것이었다. 다시 말해 큰 것 일수록 큰 부족임을 의미했다.





V. Gojoseon (2,333BC - 2BC) 고조선

Gojoseon was the first kingdom in Korean peninsula based on bronze tools. According to the Samguk Yusa, Gojoseon was founded at Asadal in 2333 BC by Dangun (priest) Wanggeom (ruler). Hong-Ik-In-Gan (Humanitarianism), saving the world and relieving the people, is the spirit of the national foundation. Since no written records exist of Gojoseon, its myth and history must be reconstructed from ancient Chinese documents or archeological remains. This period came to a close when Gojoseon was defeated by the Han Dynasty of China in a war for regional hegemony in the 2nd century B.C.

고조선은 청동기를 기반으로 한반도에 세워진



1. Founding legend

Hwanung descended to Mountain Taebaek with 3,000 helpers, where he founded a city he named Sinsi ("City of God" or "Holy City"). He instituted laws and moral codes and taught the people various arts, medicine, and agriculture with his ministers of clouds, rain, and wind (Agrarian Society). Hwanung took the bear-woman (Woong-nyeo) for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son, Dangun Wanggeom (theocracy).



2. Interpretation of the Dangun myth

The process leading up to Dangun’s birth can be interpreted as the development of civilization on the Korean Peninsula. The myth describes how the ancestors of Korean people settled in the region and ruled over the natives. The worship of multiple gods indicates that Koreans had agricultural and other advanced skills. Woong-nyeo represents the native people, and the marriage of Hwanung and Woong-nyeo represents the integration of an immigrant tribe into the native community and the resulting new tribe. Dangun was the leader and symbol of this new tribe, which is why the Korean people call themselves the “children of Dangun.



3. Development

States with defined political structures developed in the areas of the earlier Bronze Age "walled-town states". Gojoseon was the most advanced of them in the peninsular region. Territory was related to where mandolin-shaped dagger and dolmens were found. The city-state expanded by incorporating other neighboring city-states by alliance or military conquest. Initially, the capital of Gojoseon was probably located in Liaoning but around 400 BC, this was moved to nearby Pyongyang, the capital of modern North Korea.





VI. Wiman Joseon



1. Founding

In 195 BC, King Jun appointed a refugee from Yan, Wiman. Wiman later rebelled in 193 BC, and Jun fled to southern Korean Peninsula. Wiman Joseon was influenced by the Chinese, but was not a Chinese chiefdom.



2. Succession of Gojoseon

Wiman was wearing Gojoseon's clothes with a topknot on his head when he came to Gojoseon. After Wiman taking the power, the name, Gojoseon was kept, and there were many natives who became high-ranking officers.



3. Expansion

Wiman Joseon expanded to control a vast territory and became strong economically by controlling trade between China's Han Dynasty and many nations at Manchuria. Emperor Wu of Han was thought that Wiman Joseon increasingly threatened Han China, and Wiman Joseon would ally with the Xiongnu.



4. Fall

Wiman's grandson, King Woo-geo, allowed many exiles from Han China to live in Wiman Joseon. King Woo-geo prevented the Jin state from communicating with the Han Dynasty. As a result, in 109 BC, Wudi of China invaded Wiman Joseon near the Luan River. After failing several times to defeat Wiman Joseon's armies, Wanggeom-seong was captured and Wiman Joseon was destroyed. Han China established four commanderies of Han in the captured areas, which corresponds to the current North Korea, and eastern Liaoning. The commanderyies eventually fell to the rising Goguryeo.



5. Eight Prohibitions

Further details of Gojoseon society are revealed in the three articles, Wiman Joseon's code, stating that he who kills another shall immediately be put to death; that he who causes bodily injury to another shall pay compensation in grain; and that he who steals another's possessions shall either be made a slave of his victim, or pay a fine of 500,000 coins to be exonerated. In fact, records show that people did not close their gates, as no robbery was committed and that women were recognized for being faithful, avoiding lewd or loose conduct. These laws suggest that Gojoseon society was governed by the rule of law and that slaves were its lowest social class.





VII. Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea

When Gojoseon was defeated by the Han dynasty of China in 108 BC, the northern region of the peninsula and Manchuria was occupied by the states of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and other minor statelets. In the south, the little-understood state of Jin had given rise to the loose confederacies Mahan, Jinhan and Byeonhan or collectively, Samhan. Important features of this period include the widespread production of iron artifacts for daily use and the introduction of grey earthenware pottery with a beaten pattern. The introduction of iron technology enabled the manufacture and use of stronger and sharper weapons and agricultural tools, resulting in an acceleration of political integration, as well as greater concentrations of power and wealth.



1. Buyeo

Buyeo, Fuyu in Chinese, was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd century BC to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by the neighboring and brotherhood kingdom of Goguryeo in 494. Both Goguryeo and Baekje, two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, considered themselves its successor nation.

Custom: attendants were buried alive on the death of their lords

A man was married to the wife of his old brother on his death



2. Goguryeo

The Samguk Sagi, a 12th century Goryeo text, indicates that Goguryeo was founded in 37BC by Jumong (King Dongmyeongseong), a prince from Buyeo.

Custom: son-in-law live with one's family

A man was married to the wife of his old brother on his death

Dongmaeng (동맹) is a festival of worshipping heaven through song and dance held in October, which also incorporated martial displays.



3. Okjeo

Okjeo was a small tribal state which arose in the northern Korean peninsula from perhaps 2nd century BC to 5th century AD. Due to the constant interference of its neighbors, Okjeo never grew into a fully centralized kingdom. In the 1st or 2nd century AD, King Taejo of Goguryeo reduced Okjeo to a tributary, which delivered local products to Goguryeo.

Custom: people practiced arranged marriage by which the child-bride lived with the child-groom's family until adulthood, and they interred the dead of a family in a single coffin.



4. Dongye

Dongye, which means the East Ye, was a state which occupied portions of the northeastern Korean peninsula from roughly 150 BC to around 400 AD. It bordered Goguryeo and Okjeo to the north, Jinhan to the south, and China's Lelang Commandery to the west. Dongye considered itself the same people as Goguryeo, and shared the language and ethnic origins of the people of Okjeo and Goguryeo. This may indicate that Dongye also shared a common origin with Buyeo and Gojoseon. The population was recorded to be 20,000 families. The Dongye and Okjeo language, food, clothing, architecture, and customs were similar to that of Goguryeo.

Custom: Mucheon (무천), a festival of worshipping heaven through song and dance in October, is mentioned in some records. The people worshiped the tiger as a deity.



4. Samhan

Samhan refers to the ancient confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan in central and southern Korean peninsula. Sam means "three", and Han is a Korean word meaning "great" or "leader" (cognate with "khan" used in inner Asia for leaders). The Samhan are thought to have formed around the time of the fall of Gojoseon in northern Korea in 108 BC, around when the state of Jin in southern Korea also disappears from written records. By the fourth century, Mahan was fully absorbed into the Baekje kingdom, Jinhan into the Shilla kingdom, and Byeonhan into the Gaya confederacy, which was later annexed by Shilla. The Samhan are generally considered loose confederations of walled-town states. Each appears to have had a ruling elite, whose power was a mix of politics and shamanism. Although each state appears to have had its own ruler, there is no evidence of systematic succession. The Samhan saw the systematic introduction of iron into the southern Korean peninsula. This was taken up with particular intensity by the Byeonhan states of the Nakdong River valley, which manufactured and exported iron armor and weapons throughout Northeast Asia. The introduction of iron technology also facilitated growth in agriculture, as iron tools made the clearing and cultivation of land much easier.



Mahan was the largest and earliest developed of the three confederacies. It consisted of 54 minor statelets, Mokgigook conquered or absorbed the others and became the center of the Baekje Kingdom. Jinhan consisted of 12 statelets, Sarogook conquered or absorbed the others and became the center of the Silla Kingdom. Byeonhan consisted of 12 statelets, which later gave rise to the Gaya confederacy, subsequently annexed by Silla.



5. Iron tools

They increased food production. Pure bronze was too weak to be used for tools. Therefore, most of daily tools were still made of stone. The iron tools were harder and more durable than bronze ones. People could get more food by using cattle and these iron tools.

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